· Hundreds of luxury cars debut in Guangzhou Auto Show

In 2012, Guangzhou Auto Show opened in Guangzhou from August 2nd to August 5th. As an important automobile consumer city in South China, many auto manufacturers attach great importance to the sales of their products in Guangzhou. In view of the good environmental situation in the automotive market in the region, many consumers hope to compare the models horizontally and vertically through large-scale exhibitions. A special exhibition customized around the high-end crowd, "2012 Guangzhou Import Automobile Exhibition" will be staged from August 2nd to 5th, at the 14-1, 15-1 Hall C of the Pazhou Complex.
Goal: Only the top-end luxury car display platform with the "full brand" as the leading 51 and 11 Guangri Baiyun International Auto Show has demonstrated the perfect organizational planning capability of Guangzhou Daily, which will be launched in August 2012. The exhibition is mainly based on imported brands, luxury brands and super-run brand models. The price range spans hundreds of thousands to tens of millions, and strives to create a luxurious high-end brand display area.
This exhibition is a platform for “luxury car display”, giving the luxury car a space for display. In the exhibition, a total of dozens of exhibition cars from Mercedes-Benz, BMW, Audi, Land Rover and Cadillac brought dozens of exhibitors, including dozens of top luxury cars and millions of luxury cars from all over the world. A form of exhibition that is popular with consumers and suitable for the whole family to entertain. Through the display of each car and luxury car and the display of its own strength, it brings sensory impact to consumers from appearance, performance and price. You have a full-fledged addiction in the car, and through the on-site explanations of the various brand sales representatives, the mutual comparison between the brands gives consumers a more comprehensive selection platform.
If you want to upgrade your car and hope to show your taste, then this luxury car that will be unveiled may give you some unique choices.
Luxury goods and cars to participate in the carnival feast 2012 Guangzhou Import Automobile Exhibition not only set a benchmark for many luxury car brands, but also based on imported auto show, gradually add luxury brands such as yachts, watches, jewelry, etc., to create exclusive top consumer goods in South China Brand display platform.
The Auto Show will use the Guangzhou Daily's excellent publicity platform to integrate multi-channel resources to further enrich the brand, types and preferential information of vehicles. It not only takes into account the needs of consumers, but also provides an effective way for exhibitors to develop their customers. Brand promotion effect, creating a win-win situation. This year's auto show is expected to attract hundreds of thousands of visitors from the Pearl River Delta cities such as Shenzhen, Dongguan and Huizhou, and form a solid foundation for the “2012 Guangzhou Auto Show” to become the largest luxury car show in South China.
Positioning: For the high-end people, the young people come to the auto show to see the car and see the stars, what about the business people? With the maturity of the auto market in Guangzhou and consumers' awareness of luxury cars, more and more citizens are starting to start from the luxury car level. The inviting target group of the auto show is mainly members of Guangzhou car owners, financial industry and golf clubs. Their common feature is their strong purchasing power and high grade. At that time, the gathering of business people from all walks of life will not only be a pleasing journey of luxury cars, but also a unique and harmonious venue for business negotiations. In addition to watching the car, each car brand has also prepared a variety of rich prize gifts, and will set off a hot sale.
The imported auto show will cooperate with the large-scale professional market and the high-end real estate of the association's large-scale real estate group, and send invitation letters. The office building in the central city will also launch a joint promotion and send a VIP invitation.
According to the figures, the information of the National Information Center of the Luxury Car shows that in 2010, the domestic high-end luxury brands showed a market demand that was in short supply, stimulating a large number of imported models. It is reported that the sales growth of imported cars in 9 provinces and cities nationwide exceeds 100%, and the demand for imported cars in the eastern coastal areas is strong.
Relevant data shows that in recent years, the growth rate of imported cars is more than twice that of domestic cars. Top10 of imported cars in the first half of 2011 were Mercedes-Benz, BMW, Subaru, Lexus, Volkswagen, Toyota, Audi, Hyundai, Land Rover and Mitsubishi, and the annual sales exceeded one million.
The increasing sales of imported cars, in addition to their own quality advantages, consumers' demand for a higher level of car use and the demand for imported cars in the car consumer market is also one of the reasons for the popularity of imported car sales.
Guangzhou luxury car distribution map Mercedes-Benz: Renfu 3 (Guangxingxing, Renfu, Baiyun Renfu);
2 Longxingxing (Xinnan, Panyu); Hongyue 1 (Panyu)
BMW: 1 Yuebao; 1 Baoze; Baoyue 2 (Baoyue Daguan Road, Panyu)
Audi: 2 wide objects (Fangcun, Panyu); 1 Jinlong; 1 Lexus in Central Austria: 1 Jinlong; 1 in Guangzhou Automobile; 1 in Zhongsheng; 1 in Hongyue: 1 in Hongyue; 1; Zhujiang New City 1 Land Rover: 1 Hongyue; 1 in China Southern; 1 in Yong'an; 1 Cadillac in Huanshi Road: 3 in Guangwu (Yingkai, Yuekai, Shengkai)
Infiniti: Wenhua Huidi 1 (Panyu); Yuandu 1 (Guangyuan Road)
The four bright lights point one: the luxury car super-run debut as a high-end consumer goods gathered in the 2012 Guangzhou Auto Show, focus on the high-end consumer groups in the Pearl River Delta region, to create an exclusive luxury event for the elite. With many years of successful experience in organizing exhibitions, there are strict requirements from exhibiting brands to crowd orientation preferences. Most high-end luxury brands will be unveiled, including Porsche, Ferrari, Bentley, Lamborghini, Aston Martin, etc. You can feel the thrill of super-running by listening to the name, but also Land Rover, Audi, Mercedes-Benz, BMW, Luxury and comfortable cars such as Volvo, from classic models to the latest models, provide consumers with unprecedented visual enjoyment.
Highlight 2: Artist Zhou Xiu Na will accompany you to the car show. The luxury car is like a red wine with cheese. It has complementary functions and can exude both sides. In this auto show, Chrissie Zhou Xiu Na, who is a versatile artist of song and film, will show her together with the younger brothers and sisters, and come to the exhibitor booth to get close contact with the audience. At that time, Zhou Xiuna will hold the first album in the mainland to sign the sale at the auto show. There will be a poster signing event on the spot. The car will have the opportunity to be delivered by Chrissie Zhou Xiu Na, adding a different meaning to the car.
Highlight 3: Targeting high-end crowd invitations 1. Cooperate with Guangzhou Industry Business Association to cooperate with large-scale professional markets such as Guangzhou Textile City, and send invitations to send and send more than 50,000 copies.
2. It will jointly promote and accurately invite high-end real estate with Poly Group, Zhujiang Group and Yuexiu Group.
3. Zhujiang New Town's major office buildings jointly promoted and integrated resources.
Relying on the high-end customer database for many years of exhibitions and the high-quality reader resources of the Guangzhou Daily platform, the multi-channel orientation invitation will be invited to cooperate with the Guangzhou self-posting family. The number of car owners in Guangzhou exceeds 300,000, which has a stronger willingness to change cars, especially favoring luxury brands. . More than ten golf clubs around Guangzhou cooperate, and each family invites more than 300 visitors. A total of 50 banks and securities companies in China Bank, China Telecom, and Guangzhou Securities have integrated resources. On average, each of them issued 1,000 VIP customer invitations, and 50,000 high-spending customers received ticket tickets. The IFC West Tower of Yuexiu Financial Group is invited to enter the company. This exhibition is expected to have a total of 300,000 person-times to taste the tasting, and will also have a VIP special, to bring high-end customers with a unique premium car experience.
Highlight 4: High-quality prizes for you during the exhibition, every guest who has come to have a lucky draw chance, the most valuable prizes include a jet ski, worth 150,000 yuan, and 10 special-made Full gold key. In addition, there are generous travel and clothing vouchers with a total value of more than 300,000 yuan.

Aluminum PCB

Aluminum Printed Circuit Board, Recognized Best Solutions for High Power and High Thermal Conductivity


As for aluminum PCB, we will elaborate on the following aspects


  • What is Aluminum PCB?
  • More Detailed Introduction of Aluminium PCB
  • Aluminum PCB Structure
  • Aluminum PCB Advantages
  • Aluminum PCB Applications
  • Types of Aluminum PCB
  • Aluminum PCB Performance
  • Classification of Aluminum PCB
  • Manufacturing Difficulties of Aluminum PCB
  • Design Guidelines For Aluminum PCB


As a Chinese PCB manufacturer, Jinghongyi PCB has rich experience in manufacturing aluminium PCB board. It provides customers with high-quality aluminium PCB manufacturing and one-stop aluminium PCB turnkey assembly services, prompt delivery on time, and competitive prices.


What is Aluminum PCB


Among all metal core PCBs, aluminum core PCB is the most common type, also known as IMS (Isolated Metal Substrate). Due to its low cost, non-toxic and environmental protection, higher durability and lightweight characteristics, aluminum clad PCB is widely used, and its main task is to dissipate the heat generated by power components. For example, it is used in high-power LED lighting power supply, power module, automobile power controller, computer CPU motherboard, etc.

According to the different design structure and application scenarios of aluminium PCB, there are mainly Flexible aluminium PCB, mixed aluminium PCB, multi-layer aluminium PCB, through-hole aluminium PCB and so on.




More Detailed Introduction of Aluminium PCB


Using heat-sinks increases the costs and makes assembly more difficult, and the extra weight and volume can cause problems.Safe and effective heat dissipation is very important in applications where high power components generate a lot of heat. Although forced cooling is a method, the disadvantage of forced cooling is that it produces disturbing noise, vibration and increased energy consumption while refrigerating. The use of additional radiators increases costs and makes assembly more difficult, and additional weight and volume can cause other unnecessary problems.



ALUMINUM PCB | PCB MANUFACTURING


Using a specific PCB structure is usually a better solution. The commonly used solution is the metal core structure. With this solution, the printed circuit board is composed of aluminum plates bearing track patterns. Thermoelectric insulators are used between the track and the board so that heat can pass through the metal core structure, such as the Metal Core PCB.

While LED lighting is widely used, it is also necessary to eliminate the heat generated by LED lighting. Therefore, the development of LED lighting industry directly leads to the increase of PCB using aluminium core. At the same time, the market demand of LED PCB board is also growing.

Copper may be used as an alternative.

For high-power LED, most customers use aluminum-based PCB; for low-power LED, standard Fr4 PCB is also available. Our PCB manufacturing specifications and construction of most types of metal-based printed circuit boards.

Aluminum Based PCBs are a unique metal-based copper clad laminate. These types of Printed Circuit Boards have good thermal conductivity, electrical insulation and very solid machining performance.

They are also known as Aluminum Clad, Aluminum base, MCPCB (Metal Clad Printed Circuit Board), IMS (Insulated Metal Substrate), Thermally Conductive PCBs etc. Aluminum PCBs were developed in the 1970s, soon after which they`re applications increased dramatically. The first application was their use in Amplification Hybrid Integrated Circuits. Now they are being used at a large scale due to which it is necessary for us to have an idea of Aluminum PCBs and their importance.



Aluminum PCB Structure



ALUMINIUM PCB STRUCTURE | JHYPCB

AluminumPCBs are actually quite similar to FR4 PCBs. The basic structure of Aluminum PCBs is four layered. It consists of a layer of copper foil, a dielectric layer, an aluminum base layer and aluminum base membrane.


ALUMINIUM PCB LAYERS | JHYPCB


  • Copper Foil Layer: the copper layer used is relatively thicker than normal CCLs ( 1oz-10oz). A thicker layer of copper means a larger current carrying capacity.

  • Dielectric Layer: the Dielectric layer is a thermally conductive layer and is around 50μm to 200μm thick. It had a low thermal resistance and it suitable for its application.

  • Aluminum Base: The third layer isthe aluminum base which is made up of aluminum substrate. It has a high thermal conductivity.

  • Aluminum Base Membrane Layer: Aluminum base membrane is selective. It has a protective role by keeping the aluminum surface safe from scraping and unwanted etching. It is of two types i.e. Lower than 120 degree or around 250 degrees (anti high temperature)



Aluminum PCB Advantages


ALUMINUIM PCB ADVANTAGES | JHYPCB


  • Lower manufacturing and use costs: Aluminum is a metal that can be found in a variety of climates, so it is easy to mine and refine. Therefore, the costs of doing so are significantly lower than other metals. In turn, this means that manufacturing products with these metals are less expensive as well.Aluminum is a very common metal raw material, its mining and production are very convenient. Therefore, the cost of doing so is significantly lower than that of other metals. Conversely, this means that products made from these metals are also cheaper.

  • More energy-saving and environmentally friendly: Aluminum is non-toxic and recyclable. Because it is easy to assemble, the use of aluminium also helps to save energy. For PCB vendors, the use of this metal helps to maintain the health of our planet.

  • Better heat dissipation performance:Efficient heat dissipation is the greatest advantage of aluminium PCB. High temperature can cause serious damage to electronic equipment, so it is wise to use materials that can help heat dissipation. Aluminum can actually transfer heat from important components to minimize its harmful effects on circuit boards.

  • Higher strength and durability: Aluminum provides strength and durability to a product that ceramic or fiberglass bases cannot. Aluminum is a sturdy base material that can reduce accidental breakage during manufacturing, handling, and everyday use.

  • Lighter weight and better elasticity: Aluminum is widely recognized as a light metal. While increasing the heat dissipation performance of high power components, it also reduces the weight of the product itself, and increases the strength and elasticity. In addition, in the transportation of products, lighter weight also saves the transportation cost of products.

  • Higher conductivity: Thermal conductance of dielectic used is 5 to 10 times higher than old epoxy glass.

  • More effective and reliable: Thermal transfer is more efficient and reliable than regular PCB.



Aluminum PCB Applications


ALUMINUM PCB APPLICATIONS | JHYPCB


  • Audio device: Input, output amplifier, balanced amplifier, audio amplifier, pre-amplifier,power amplifier.

  • Power Supply: Switching regulator, DC / AC converter, SW regulator, etc.

  • Communication electronic equipment: High-frequency amplifier, filtering appliances,transmitter circuit

  • Office automation equipment: Motor drive, etc.

  • Automobile: Electronic regulator, ignition, power supply controller, etc.

  • Computer: CPU board, floppy disk drive, power supply devices, etc.

  • Power Modules: Inverter, solid state relays, rectifier bridges.

  • Lamps and lighting: As the advocated promotion of energy-saving lamps, a variety of colorful energy-saving LED lights are well received by the market, and aluminum pcb used in LED lights also begin large-scale applications.



Types of Aluminum PCB

TYPES OF ALUMINUM PCB | JHYPCB


There are number of types of aluminum PCBs which are used in many applications based on their construction and design. However, main purpose of all the aluminum PCBs is almost same; providing heat dissipation solutions for the applications involving high temperature. Following are the main types of aluminum PCBs.According to the different structure and design of aluminium PCB, different types of aluminium substrates are used in different application scenarios. However, the main uses of all aluminium PCBs are almost the same; heat dissipation solutions are provided for applications involving high temperatures. The following are the main types of aluminium PCB.

  • Flexible Aluminum PCB


Firstly, Flexible aluminium PCB is a new flexible dielectric developed in the development of aluminium products. It is also a kind of flexible circuit board. Because of the combination of polyimide resin and ceramic filter, it has high flexibility, thermal efficiency and excellent electrical insulation. When used in aluminium PCB products, the expensive cables and connectors no longer need to be used.

Flexible circuit boards have unparalleled flexibility, so flexible aluminum PCB can be arbitrarily folded, twisted or formed in any other desired form. However, it should be noted that once a specific shape is formed, it can no longer be changed like other conventional flexible circuit boards. Or deform.


  • Hybrid Aluminum PCB


In hybrid aluminum construction, non-thermal material is processed and refined separately before it is applied to the thermal materials with aluminum base.

The most common practice is developing 2 layer or 4 layer structure which comprises of FR4 material.

A non thermal material that is bonded with thermal material and aluminum base provides rigidity and helps in the dissipation of heat.

This non thermal bonding is preferred over using all thermal materials because it features less cost and encompasses efficient thermal conductance over regular FR4 products.

No heat sinks or assembly steps are required for the development of this product.

Through hole components can be easily adjusted using component windows on the aluminum base.

This helps in passing the cables and connectors through substrate. Also the seal created by solder fillet eliminates the need of costly adopters.

  • Multilayer Aluminum PCB


Multilayer Aluminum PCBs are very common in power supply products and come with multiple layers of thermally conductive dielectrics.

These materials are very useful when they are combined with one or more layer of circuitry in which thermally conductive dielectric is buried between the layers with the help of blind vias which also act as a signal or thermal vias.

Single layer construction of these designs is not very effective, however, when they come with more complex designs they provide an ideal solution for many applications involving heat dissipation.

  • Through Hole Aluminum PCB


When it comes to most complex constructions, a single layer of aluminum is back-filled and pre-drilled with before applying lamination, forming a Core of a multilayer constructions.

Thermal bonding materials are then used to laminate the thermal materials on both sides of the aluminum.

Once lamination is done, drilling is applied on the assembly.

In order to maintain proper electrical insulation, the plated through holes created as the result of drilling must pass through aluminum clearances.



Aluminum PCB Performance


ALUMINUM PCB PERFORMANCE | JHYPCB


  • Better heat dissipation and conductivity: Compared with ordinary FR4 PCB, aluminium PCB has excellent heat dissipation performance. For example, Fr4 PCB with a thickness of 1.5mm will have a thermal resistance of 20-22 degrees per watt, while aluminium PCB with a thickness of 1.5mm will have a thermal resistance of 1-2 degrees per watt.

  • There is no serious problem of thermal expansion or contraction.: each substance has its own coefficient of thermal expansion. The CTE of aluminum (22ppm/C) and copper(18ppm/C)is quite close. Since aluminum PCBs work well in terms of Thermal dissipation they do not have severe expansion or contraction issues. They work excellently and are durable and reliable.

  • Dimensional Stability: aluminum PCBs show dimensional stability and stable size. For example, when they are heated from 30-140 degrees, their size only had a change by 2.5%-3.0%.

  • Others: Aluminum PCBs can be used in power device surface mount technology. They are effective for use in circuit design because of their performance in terms of thermal expansion of circuit design. They help to prolong products shelf life and product power density. They are also extremely reliable. They can help to shrink the overall volume of the product and is also a cheaper option. They show electromagnetic shielding and high dielectric strength.




Classification of Aluminum PCB

CLASSIFICATION OF ALUMINUM PCB | JHYPCB


Aluminum PCBs are essentially divided into three categories.

  • Universal Aluminum PCB: the dielectric layer used here is made up of epoxy glass fiber pre-preg.

  • High Thermal-Conductive Aluminum PCB: the dielectric layer is made up of epoxy resin. The resin used must have high thermal conductivity.

  • High-frequency Aluminum PCB: the dielectric layer is composed of polyolefin or polyimide resin glass fiber pre-preg.



Manufacturing Difficulties of Aluminum PCB


The manufacturing process for nearly all aluminum PCBs is essentially the same. Here we will discuss the major manufacturing processes, the difficulties and their solutions.

  • Copper Etching: the copper foil used in Aluminum PCBs is comparatively thicker. If the copper foil is over 3oz however, the etching requires width compensation. If it is not according to the demand of the design, the trace width will be out of tolerance after etching. Therefore the trace width compensation should be designed accurately. The etching factors need to be controlled during manufacturing process.

Copper Etching | JHYPCB

  • Solder Mask Printing: due to the thick copper foil there is a difficulty in solder mask printing of aluminum PCB. This is because if the trace copper is too thick then the image etched will have a large difference between trace surface and base board and solder mask printing will be difficult. Therefore, the two-time solder mask printing is used. The solder mask oil used should be of good quality and in some cases the resin filling is done first and then solder mask.

  • Mechanical Manufacturing: the mechanical manufacturing process involves mechanical drilling, molding and v-scoring etc. which Is left on internal via. This tends to reduce electrical strength. Therefore, the electric milling and professional milling cutter should be utilized for low-volume manufacturing of products. The drilling parameters should be adjusted to prevent burr from generating. This will help your mechanical manufacturing.

Key Requirements When Selecting an Aluminum PCB Manufacturer


For the most part, all PCB manufacturing follows the same production process regardless of where they are made. The only true differences in suppliers is the level of automation in their process, the newest technology and equipment, and having specific equipment designed to focus on certain types of end products.

For aluminum PCBs, there are several key items that a PCB manufacturer needs to consider if they are going to be able to effectively produce aluminum PCBs in any quantity, including:

  • Dedicated Imaging Equipment

Many of our aluminum backed PCBs go into LED applications that are much longer than the standard 18" x 24" or 20" x 24" production panels used in traditional PCB manufacturing. To be able to accurately register and economically produce these parts, a manufacturer must have either a custom piece of 60" wide UV light imaging equipment or a setup capable of screen printing (at one time) an image and then UV curing through an oven.

The old manufacturing process of screen printing half the image and then trying to hand register the first image while screen print the second half is much less effective.

  • Specialized Scoring Equipment

The more common equipment that can V score through traditional FR-4 materials is not suited to manage aluminum PCBs. To get the lowest cost possible, we need to get the best yield possible, which means we need to be able to place these parts as close as possible to each other on the production panel. Without V scoring, you must mechanically rout the parts out, which could result in up to 20% loss of your yield, subsequently increasing cost.

Our engineering team has many years of experience helping our customers design arrays that are the most cost effective for them to depanelize.

  • Greater Than 40-ton Punch Presses

For aluminum PCBs that are round or have unique features – (slots, large holes, cutouts, etc.) – you will want a manufacturer that can punch out these features. Trying to mechanically rout aluminum PCBs is a very costly way to get these features done in a production environment.

  • In-Line Hi-Pot Test

A unique requirement of aluminum PCB is that customers want to know that the product they are getting has passed a hi-pot test. While most PCB manufacturers can do this, it is usually a separate process in a lab that is not located in electrical testing. Epec`s electrical test set up includes a hi-pot test, which dramatically reduces cost for the customer.

The following table presents some of our Aluminum Core materials:


some of our Aluminum Core materials


Check our Aluminum core PCB manufacturing capabilities in the following table:


Aluminum core PCB manufacturing capabilities




Design Guidelines For Aluminum PCB


DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR ALUMINUM PCB | JHYPCB


The task of aluminum core circuit board is to dissipate the heat generated by power components. Therefore, we recommend installing pure power components in this part of the circuit. The control unit shall be installed on a separate standard PCB.


The most important criterion for this is the minimum drilling distance required for such PCBs.

Drilling distances and diameters


In case of double-sided aluminium-core circuits, the aluminium core must be insulated against throughplating. This is done using an excess of resin when press-moulding the aluminium core with prepregs and copper or by plugging. To this end, the aluminium core must be pre-drilled.

The smallest drilling diameter in the aluminium core is 1,0 mm, the smallest final diameter in the PCB is 0,3 mm. So that the drills are not damaged in these close-set drill holes, a minimum spacing of 1,2 mm is required. This is generally the knock-out criteria for a densely-packed control unit.


Variants of aluminium core circuits


  • Single-sided PCBs on aluminium carriers


A copper foil is laminated onto an aluminium carrier using a prepreg.
Normally, this variant only has drill holes for fastenings.

  • Multilayer PCBs with aluminium core


Copper foils are laminated onto both sides of an aluminium core using prepreg. The PCB can be through-plated. This means that it is also possible to produce multilayers with a 0,5 mm aluminium core.

  • PCBs on metal heat-conducting sheets


Completed PCBs are press-moulded to an aluminium carrier using a prepreg. Benefit: Multilayers can also be used (only single-sided SMD). Partial aluminium carriers are possible. Disadvantage: Poor heat dissipation, as the heat has to be dissipated through the entire PCB.

  • Aluminium-flex


One further possibility is a rigid-flex PCB structure, where the aluminium carrier works as the rigid area of the PCB. This means that it is also possible, for example, to connect a control unit as a plug connector over the exposed flex area.



Basics of Heat Transfer


At a basic level, a discussion about heat transfer includes two topics: temperature and heat flow. Temperature represents the level of thermal energy that`s available, while heat flow represents thermal energy movement from one place to another.

Microscopically, thermal energy is directly related to a molecule`s kinetic energy. The greater the temperature of a material, the greater the thermal agitation of its molecules. It`s normal for areas that contain a lot of kinetic energy to pass it along to areas with less kinetic energy.

There are some material properties that effectively modulate heat that`s transferred between two areas at different temperatures. These include thermal conductivities, material densities, fluid velocities and fluid viscosities. Together, these properties make resolving many heat transfer problems pretty complicated.



The Mechanisms of Heat Transfer


Heat transfer mechanisms can be grouped into three broad categories:

  • Conduction. Areas that have more molecular kinetic energy will send their thermal energy to areas that have less molecular energy. This occurs through a direct collision of molecules, known as conduction. In metals, some of the energy transported from one area to another is also carried by conduction-band electrons.

  • Convection. When heat is generated in an electronic device, it`s transported via conduction to an are where it is then transferred to a fluid. That process is convection, and the fluid can take the form of a gas such as air or conventional water.

  • Radiation. All materials give off thermal energy in amounts that are determined by temperature. When the temperatures are uniform, the radiation flux is in in equilibrium between objects, and there is no exchange of thermal energy. This balance changes when temperatures vary and thermal energy is transported from areas of higher temperatures to those of lower temperature.



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